His observations define the disadvantages but none offer a higher understanding of elitism. We’re told the faux diversity of elite schools, the pursuit of grades over wisdom, the exclusivity, the labored meritocracy, inexorably leads to one outcome: more alumni. It’s not clear how a Romantic intellectual would be employed in the 21st century and that’s also precisely the point. Were Romantics not elitist as we define the word today? If an elite education makes William Deresiewicz who he is, then why do others excel while he has fallen to the “Ivy retardation”? Can this “retardation” spread or is it inherited?

His essay isn’t specifically about elitism. Instead he discusses the downfall of identity, both personal and social, in an institution designed to foster ideas and, ironically, an enlightened sense of identity. If elitism is bad then you can’t remove it until it’s understood. Let’s try to understand.

Elitism, as I define the word, is an amalgamation of glamour, wealth, exclusivity, power, and pedigree. These concepts form a wireframe but it’s neither education nor an epistemic desire to learn. Therefore, without the core of higher education, elitism is simply an empty wrapper—branding, marketing, or a way to sell an object—but not the object itself. Elitism and education are conflated but the so-called disadvantages are attributed unfairly to the combination. If worldly and informed students graduate without elitist qualities or the “retardation”, then they have extracted something of great value without being burdened by the disadvantages which I believe do not exist.

Students know that by admission, graduation, and association, the benefits of an elite education usually result in lucrative jobs. I attended public grade schools, high school, and then graduated from a public university. The concept of elite and public coinciding is a contradiction. Some political offices hold an elite status but generally the commons is not a site of glamour, exclusivity, wealth, power, or pedigree.

Calling an institution or person elitist is to suggest some form of entitlement. Entitlement is commonly associated with birthright, inheritance, or social status. Perhaps society is reluctant to admit it or accept it, but I believe the underlying cause of elitism is genetic. Mr. Deresiewicz makes conclusions based upon environmental factors but completely overlooks heritability. Genetics cannot explain all the variables in my theory on elitism (exclusivity, for example) but DNA can influence many of the personality traits which develop those variables. Help us identify these elitist characteristics, Mr. Deresiewicz, instead of slogging forward with one lamentation after another.

I attended graduate school with a small group of 30 students. This was the first fulltime MBA program for my university. Students were selected based upon their performance in undergraduate school and their academic diversity. You can already see how the admitted students think they’re “special” and, perhaps, entitled to more. I was the only engineer while most others had business degrees. It also turns out 30 was sufficient for something else: a microcosm of elite education.

During the last semester our appointed finance professor was a studying PhD student. Grading was easy but his title and qualifications angered the class. A mini-protest began which led to a petition to replace him. Everyone thought the MBA class deserved better. Maybe so, but I disagreed with the means to accomplish this and refused to sign (I was the only one). The drama was compounded by our legal professor, a woman well versed in tort law and who was eager to remind everyone that she has a carry permit. The idea of a petition seemed juvenile and few civil debates were held over the issue. This drama played out until his replacement arrived. The following events, unlike any other in my college experience, exposed elitist tendencies in quick order.

When the new finance professor was revealed the former business undergrads let out a collective groan. He fought grade inflation, was tough, thorough, and fair. Elitist kryptonite apparently comes from India. Each pop quiz was met with bitching; test results, if not an A, were met with protests. Such behavior is the mark of elitists and individuals who feel above the need to learn. Soon their discontent was directed to the MBA program itself. Certainly it wasn’t the students who were mistaken, it was the system. I can therefore conclude that elitism is not unique to haughty institutions with rich alumni. So it was in your school, Mr. Deresiewicz, and so it was in mine.

Elitism is not monopolized by upper crust society. I’ve seen elitist attitudes in public universities and their aftereffects in the private sector. The most intolerable belief is that the system is flawed, not the individual. Indeed, systems can and do fail. No system is perfect. Yet, when faced with an obstacle or failure an elitist will not look in the mirror. The reason or excuse is most assuredly external. Some institutions focus these behaviors and amplify their effects. In elite colleges the potential for groupthink seems likely, therefore, blame is not sought among peers. When forces outside the walled garden are such easy targets, why bother? Indeed, just sign a petition.

Maybe the larger question is: Should elitism be stopped? Is there any proof its existence is harming society? Perhaps elitism is a Western phenomenon that’s become more apparent as our overall wealth has increased. Capitalism is still a relatively new concept and our perception of elitism is evolving with it. There’s been a dot-com bubble and a housing bubble. An elitism bubble wouldn’t surprise me. It’s also possible we’re debating a non-issue. I’ve observed elitist traits within academia and without, from rich people and poor people, and fail to see the end of it. Unfortunately, people are notoriously bad at predicting bubbles.

Thank you for writing to voice your concerns. That you replied to the “New Board” posting makes it evident that we, the five volunteer Board members and property manager are failing in some ways. I would estimate the five volunteers, Bill, Andrea, Roger, Gerald, and me, have given in excess of 120 hours of their time back to the community at no charge and the year is not over. The majority of us also work in excess of 40 hours per week at our normal, full-time jobs. We try to lead by example and save the community money, which brings me to your first point.

“Don’t even think about raising the dues this year”
Wildewood just received notice that our landscape maintenance costs would be increasing by 2.5% effective immediately. I expect many of our costs to increase as a result of the economy. Our Covenants stipulate that we can raise dues by no more than 5% per annum over the previous year. We’ll have to raise dues without question, if simply to maintain our level of maintenance and keep pace with monetary inflation. If you find a similar HOA in the Tampa/St. Pete/Clearwater area, with the same number of homes, for such a low price (currently less than $200 a year), please let us know. I’m told our community is an exceptional case.

“It seems the board now is in the mood to be NICE…POLITICALLY CORRECT”
I agree that we are in the mood to be nice. Is the only alternative being cruel and politically incorrect, ruling this small community like a fiefdom? Wildewood isn’t a homeowner association you hear about on the news – fining for small brown patches on lawns, an extra satellite dish, or other petty reasons. It’s my belief (to paraphrase Thomas Jefferson) that the HOA that governs least, governs best. The lawyers who drafted our original documents seemed to agree. The documents do not stipulate how we can enforce covenant issues. This issue can be lumped into one about “pigpen” homes you mentioned. Members of the Board do not enjoy this sight any more than you. Other, more ruthless, legally-entitled HOAs are setup to explicitly empower their association to levy fees, or take other action against these issues. Ours was established without such empowerments. You suggest “[the Association] lawyer sends them a letter with the intent to foreclose” yet you do not want our dues raised. These are simply incompatible actions. It also exposes our Association to costly legal retaliation.

“…now we have homes that are again having unregistered vehicles…”
Please report these to Hillsborough County Code Enforcement. It’s free, anonymous, online, and it works. We even provide a link on our website (right side, towards the bottom). Help us be the eyes and ears of the community. Members of the Board do this independently and encourage residents to do the same.

“I will start a petition drive to kill this association…”
Why? Your frustration is apparent but this is counter productive. Without an Association, who would pay for the repair of vandalized walls? Who would maintain a lighted entrance or promote a website to enable a better connected neighborhood?

Mr. X, I spent almost one hour of my time considering this letter and what it means for Wildewood. In short, it means someone cares. And yet, seven months into a new Board of Directors, what has been accomplished? I consider the gains amazing (lots of paint, sod, new plants) and a sign of future improvements to come. I’ll be staying an hour late at work today or tomorrow to compensate. Change takes time and free labor is hard to find.

Sincerely,

Matthew Crumley
Wildewood President, 2008

The sigh of resignation is deafening in Samuel Florman’s article “Facing Facts about the Engineering Profession”. He says, “engineers will not play a significant role as legislators…and perhaps that is all for the best.” It’s clear throughout the piece that Mr. Florman had aspirations for his colleagues, but they disappointed him. Unfortunately, like a typical engineer, he is content to point out flaws in the design, but not extroverted enough to push hard for change. When I went to the 2006 I/ITSEC conference and asked the Congressional Modeling and Simulation Caucus what they could do to promote civic responsibility in engineering, I got hems and haws in response. The caucus is mostly composed of lawyers (54%). Where are the engineers? I got a few handshakes after the meeting and thought about our situation. Politics isn’t going to change, so engineers will have to evolve. We need to broaden our education: more courses in ethics, history, and debate are absolutely necessary. It’s the only way to defy our stereotype, get engineers elected, and bring intellectual diversity into politics.

Mr. Florman has years of experience in his profession but his hopes gave way to a die hard stereotype of engineers. I hope I can change, personally or nationally, the typical view of engineers he accepts with such reluctance.

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A resource could be physical hardware or data, and a service could be an e-mail system. In other words, resources are things and services do things. The individual systems which are networked must be connected through a pathway (called the transmission medium) that is used to transmit the resource or service between the computers. All systems on the pathway must follow a set of common communication rules for data to arrive at its intended destination and for the sending and receiving systems to understand each other. The rules governing computer communication are called protocols.

Having a transmission pathway does not always guarantee communication. When two entities communicate they do not merely exchange information, rather, they must understand the information they receive from each other. The goal of computer networking, therefore, is not simply to exchange data but to understand and use data received from other entities on the network. Because computers can be used in different ways and can be located at different distances from each other, enabling computers to communicate often can be a daunting task that draws on a wide variety of technologies.

The two main reasons for using computer networks are to provide services and to reduce equipment costs. Networks enable computers to share their resources by offering services to other computers and users. Specific reasons for networking PCs include sharing files, printers and other devices, enabling centralized administration and security of the resources within the system, and supporting network applications such as e-mail and database services. Database servers are the most common type of application servers. Because database services enable applications to be designed in separate client and server components, such applications frequently are called client/server databases.

With a client/server database, the client and server applications are designed to take advantage of the specialized capabilities of client and database systems. The client application manages data input from the user, generation of screen displays, some of the reporting, and data retrieval requests sent to the database server. The database server manages the database files; adds, deletes, and modifies records in the database; queries the database and generates the results required by the client; and transmits results back to the client. The database server can service requests for multiple clients at the same time.

Database services relieve clients of most of the responsibilities for managing data. A modern database server is a sophisticated combination of software that can provide database security, optimize the performance of database operations, determine optimum locations for storing data without requiring clients to know where data is located, service large numbers of clients by reducing the amount of time any one client spends accessing the database, and distribute data across multiple database servers.

In the late 1990s the demand for database information shifted. Distributed databases became increasingly popular. Obtaining information from a proprietary source did not suffice. The demand for information came from a multitude of users using a myriad of networked PCs. The bottom line: all users want access to the data they want on every machine they use. Thus, the demand for database connectivity has also shifted.

1.1 SQL BASICS

Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard language for accessing relational databases. SQL is not a typical programming language. It is used to define and manipulate data. The current ISO operating standard is SQL92¹. Unfortunately, SQL is not yet as standard as one would like. One area of difficulty is that data types used by different Data Base Management Systems (DBMSs) sometimes vary and the variations can be significant. As more and more developers use SQL, extensions of grammar make it difficult when working with more than one database. Many times a database may conform to the standard but may not implement all the capabilities that it defines.

Execution of an SQL statement manipulates the data in the tables. The most commonly used SQL statements are CREATE TABLE, INSERT INTO, SELECT FROM, UPDATE and DELETE FROM. A relational database is made up of tables. To create a table, the command is CREATE TABLE; it is followed by the table name then the columns. Each field is defined by a data type and a length. The INSERT INTO command inserts columns into the table; this command is followed by the table name then parenthesis to enclose the columns that will be inserted. The actual values for the columns are inserted using the VALUES command. The SELECT FROM command specifies where to retrieve the data, which data to retrieve and how to see the data displayed; it also allows for narrowing the search using the WHERE and AND commands. The UPDATE command, as its name suggests, allows the table to be updated. The SET and WHERE commands allow the update of a specific column entry. The DELETE FROM command is used to delete a row in the table; it is also used with the WHERE command.

Another area of difficulty with SQL conformance is that most DBMSs use a standard form of SQL for basic functionality; however, they do not conform to the more recently defined standard SQL syntax or semantics for more advanced functionality. For example, not all databases support stored procedures or outer joins, and those that do support it are not always consistent with each other. Also, support for SQL3 features and data types varies greatly. It is hoped the portion of SQL that is truly standard will expand to include increased functionality.

2.0 PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Since a great deal of industry applications are database-oriented and many are Web-enabled, there needed to be an API compatible across many platforms and machines. The common need for data access was pushing the industry away from vendors with proprietary systems.

Microsoft created the Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) standard for connecting to databases and—like many database-tool vendors—it uses SQL for accessing relational database systems. However, users demanding data were left with multiple databases and multiple means of accessing them via DBMSs.

What was needed was a way for users to communicate with a variety of different data sources. Based on Java’s acceptance (in business and academia) and its “write once, run anywhere” concept, Java was a natural means for database connectivity development. Thus, Java Data Base Connectivity (JDBC) was born.

JDBC was conceived in September 1995, proposed in January 1996, announced in March 1996, and finalized in May 1996. Sun Microsystems and industry leaders (Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Symantec, and Intersolv) had emerged with an answer to user’s database connectivity demands.

JDBC is very similar to Microsoft’s ODBC. They can both interface with SQL but the question lingers: why and how should JDBC be implemented as an SQL interface when a solution already exists?

3.0 DESIGN SOLUTION

Prior to the development of the JDBC API, Microsoft’s ODBC API was the most widely used programming interface for accessing relational databases, as it offers the ability to connect to almost all databases on almost all platforms. With the help of the JDBC-ODBC Bridge, it is possible to use ODBC from Java. JDBC API builds on ODBC rather than starting from scratch. Programmers familiar with ODBC find it very easy to learn. The major difference is that JDBC API builds on and reinforces the style and virtues of Java, and it goes beyond just sending SQL statements to a relational DBMS. When ODBC is used, the ODBC driver manager and drivers must be manually installed on every client machine. When the JDBC driver is written completely in Java, however, JDBC code is automatically installable, portable, and secure on all Java platforms from network computers to mainframes².

3.1 JDBC API

The JDBC API is used to invoke SQL commands directly. It works very well in this capacity and is easier to use than other database connectivity APIs, but it was also designed to be a base for alternate interfaces and tools. It tries to use a more understandable or more convenient API that is translated behind the scenes into the JDBC API. So, it builds upon previous database connectivity and provides its own unique solution.

The JDBC package provides a simple solution: use Java to connect, query, and update a database using SQL. This is a relatively straightforward solution to database connectivity, but has many different implementations. Programs using the JDBC API communicate via a JDBC driver manager which uses a currently installed driver. The major classes and interfaces that the JDBC API provides are defined in Table 1¹.

3.1.1 DriverManager

The DriverManager class implements the Driver interface. It is the class that manages the JDBC drivers. It is also responsible for the connection to the database that is accessed through the drivers. To specify a particular driver, you use the system property “jdbc.drivers”, the DriverManager will load the driver specified. You may set the property of the “jdbc.drivers” through the setProperty() method in the System class or in the Properties class The driver may also be loaded explicitly by using the forName() method in Class class. When the driver class is loaded, it automatically calls the DriverManager class method. The DriverManager class has methods for creating a connection to a JDBC driver. The objects are implement using Connection by using getConnection() method. The forName() method is called in the beginning of main() enabling it to throw an exception if the driver is not loaded for some reason. These classes and interfaces for the JDBC libraries are defined and imported from the java.sql package. Listed below are some examples of how these are used¹.

// Sets the driver
System.setProperty ("jdbc.drivers", "sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver");

// Loads the ODBC driver
Class.forName("sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbc.Driver");

// Connection made using a URL string to specify the database location
Connect databaseConnection = DriverManager.getConnection(source);

// Connection to a database and sends the username and password
databaseConnection = DriverManager.getConnection(sourceURL, username, password);

3.1.2 Statement Objects

Statement objects are of the class that implements the Statement interface. The Statements objects are created by using createStatement() method of a valid Connection object. To execute an SQL query, use the executeQuery()method. The contents of the query are passed as a string argument for the method. The Statement object also allows for batching queries, which may be executed at a later time. For batching, the methods are executeBatch() and clearBatch().

3.1.3 ResultsSet Objects

ResultsSet are of the class that implements the ResultSet interface. It returns the results of a table of the executed SQL query and contains a cursor. The cursor allows the manipulation of any row in the set. The cursor initially is pointing to a position that precedes the first row in the table. The cursor can be moved to the next position by using the next() method. The method will return a true if there is a next row. The methods first() and last() will position the cursor to the first or last row when called. In addition, the methods beforeFirst() and afterLast() move the cursor position the row before the first or after the last row. The previous() method moves the cursor to the previous row to where the cursor is currently positioned. As with the next() method, previous() will also return true if there is a previous row and false if there are not any additional rows. To verify whether the cursor is positioned at the beginning or end of the table, call the isLast() or isFirst() methods. To see the results for all rows, a while loop is used as seen in the example below.

while(resultset.next())
{
  //your code for processing the rows
}

ResultSet has predefined methods for retrieving information about columns in the query table. These methods are listed in Table 2¹.

The JDBC API provides a ReultSetMetaData object that lets you peek into the data behind the ResultSet object. A few of the methods for the ResultSetMetaData are listed in Table 3¹.

3.2 JDBC ARCHITECTURE

There are two JDBC architectures used to talk with the database. The first uses the JDBC driver to communicate directly with the database. The second uses a “bridge” to communicate with an ODBC driver³. The bridge structure was created to take advantage of the large number of ODBC-enabled data foundations. When using a bridge, there are more operations necessary to use a JDBC driver, opposed to the former architecture.

The two architectures have pros and cons. Solutions using JDBC have varying tiers of integration with ODBC and SQL. One area of difficulty is that data types used by different DBMSs sometimes vary, and the variations can be significant. JDBC deals with this by defining a set of generic SQL type identifiers in the class java.sql.Types. It’s worthy to note that the JDBC API can be used in both applets and stand-alone applications. This opens the door for many different implementations, as stated earlier. There are more than 20 commercially available JDBC implementations for users to choose from⁴. However, the selected implementation should be determined by the application’s requirements.

To encompass all these implementations, it is easier to segment them based upon two-tier and three-tier models. These two models can then be used to implement four different technical approaches—also, by no coincidence, four different types of drivers.

The two-tier model emerged with the coming of server technology. The database developer could create a front-end application that opened data through a connection to the back-end server. In this model the Java applet (or application) can talk directly to the database. The JDBC driver manager can open the database via a JDBC driver and then use the connection to make calls to queries and fetch results directly with the JDBC driver. The three-tier model is similar with one exception: there’s middleware.

The middleware is the actual service, which sends SQL statements to the database. The database returns with data to the “middle tier” and then on to the user. The client talks to the intermediate server that provides an abstract layer from the RDBMS. The models are sound and have been implemented in four different driver types to connect with individual databases. Those drivers come in four varieties. Types 1 and 2 are intended for programmers writing applications, while Types 3 and 4 are typically used by vendors of middleware or databases.

3.2.1 Type I Driver: JDBC-ODBC Bridge

Its main purpose is to take advantage of the myriads of ODBC-enabled data sources widely used by developers to connect to databases in a non-Java environment. This is a good approach for learning JDBC. Also, it may be useful for companies that already have ODBC drivers installed on each client machine—typically the case for Windows-based machines running productivity applications. Finally, it may be the only way to gain access to some low-end desktop databases. The solution allows access to databases from multiple vendors. The stipulations are that the appropriate ODBC driver is chosen and that native code is preinstalled on any client that directly uses the bridge to implement the API calls (see Figure 1). The later is a major hindrance when considering clientprogram development. Some of the disadvantages to using this type include: this type is not for large-scale applications; performance suffers because there is some overhead associated with the translation work to go from JDBC to ODBC; it doesn’t support all the features of Java; the user is limited by the functionality of the underlying ODBC driver. The solution would be better implemented if pre-installing is eliminated. The next driver type attempts a similar implementation but has similar caveats.

3.2.2 Type II Driver: The native-API, partly Java Driver

This is also two-tier, in that the JDBC driver requires a vendor-supplied library to translate JDBC functions into the DBMS’s query language⁴. These drivers, much like the JDBC/ODBC bridge, require preinstalled software installed on the client’s computer. This type converts the calls that a developer writes to the JDBC application programming interface into calls that connect to the client machine’s application programming interface for a specific database, such as IBM, Informix, Oracle or Sybase. The performance is better than that of Type 1, in part due to eliminating the extra ODBC translation layer (see Figure 1). The fundamentals are very similar to the previous driver. The Type 2 driver contains compiled code that is optimized for the back-end database server’s operating system⁶. Disadvantages associated with this Type include: the user needs to make sure the JDBC driver of the database vendor is loaded onto each client machine; it must have compiled code for every operating system that the application will run on; the best use is for controlled environments, such as an intranet. The multi-tier (or three-tier) model presented next adds another layer to the database connectivity structure but comes closer to JDBC’s main goal of access anywhere, anytime, data.

3.2.3 Type III Driver: The network-protocol, all-Java driver

This pure Java driver for database middleware provides connectivity to many different databases. The driver translates JDBC calls into a database-independent network protocol, and is then translated to database-specific API calls by a middle-tier (middleware) server. The term middleware is acceptable because the middle-tier server can be a Type 1 or Type 2 driver⁴. The middleware can also be a native component or written in Java. The structure is three-tier because there is the JDBC client driver, middleware, and the database being accessed (see Figure 2). Type 3 provides better performance than Types 1 and 2. It can be used when a company has multiple databases and wants to use a single JDBC driver to connect to all of them. As it is server-based there is no need for JDBC driver code on the client machine. For performance reasons, the back-end server component is optimized for the operating system that the database is running on. This type incorporates security, firewalls, and proxies—issues very important to a multi-user (highly scalable) environment.

Insofar as configuration, the Type 3 driver has more server-side than client-side issues related to setup. The server must be configured for the database(s) being accessed—involving ports, environment variables and database-specific issues. The middleware could also be proprietary. All these issues point to the final driver type, which attempts to make connectivity seamless to the client. This Type needs some database-specific code on the middleware server. If the middleware must run on different platforms, a Type 4 driver might be more effective.

3.2.4 Type IV Driver: Native-protocol, all-Java Driver

This Type takes JDBC calls and converts them into packets that are sent over the network in the proprietary format used by the specific database. It allows a direct call from the client machine to the database. The driver can be written completely in Java (see Figure 2). This Type also provides better performance than Types 1 and 2, and there is no need to install special software on the client or server; it can be downloaded dynamically. This solution is accomplished without an ODBC or native API. These drivers are only available through the DBMS vendors because a high degree of protocol-specific knowledge is required to code the driver. The Java applets with JDBC driver can be downloaded to a browser without any client software installation⁷.

Using JDBC has become simpler for companies that opt to use an application server, which is software that sits between the client and the database server accepting and directing the data requests. Application servers have JDBC support built into them, reducing the amount of code the programmer needs to write.

Chad Ruff, president of Sage Software Inc. in Atlanta, who has been writing Java applications for three years said, “I can’t even imagine how much more productive I am with an application server rather than JDBC—maybe in the range of 400%.”

Daryl Plummer, an analyst at Stamford, Conn.-based Gartner Group Inc. predicts that by the end of 2001, when using an application server will be the dominant means of building new applications, “people will become much less concerned about JDBC drivers because they’ll have picked the application server because of its support for a certain database.”

JDBC can be helpful in at least the following three common business scenarios, according to Sun product manager Milena Volkova⁵.

• When there’s a need to disseminate information internally in a large company where departments have standardized on different platforms.
• If a corporation has undergone a merger and finds itself with different operating systems and databases.
• For e-commerce applications that run over the Internet, where the company has no control over the software its customers use. The customers only need the appropriate Java technology, which can be downloaded on the fly to their computers.

Extending the solution domain of JDBC seems very straightforward according to Volkova’s scenarios. With two architecture models and four different driver types, the solutions available for connecting users to the data they want can be quite flexible. However, the reach of JDBC can better be shown through an example or case study.

4.0 EXAMPLE

An Oracle database was created called jdbcstudents. The database contains columns for first name, last name, email and grade. Three students were entered. A Java program was written to select the columns from the database jdbcstudents and display the results. The Java program uses the Type 2 driver, which has vendor specific class libraries. Although a database was created prior to the Java program, with some modifications to the code, the program is capable of creating a database directly.

import java.sql.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.*;

class jdbc
{
  public static void main( String args[]) throws SQLException
  {
    String databaseurl = "jdbc:oracle:" + "server.engr.ucf.edu";
    try{
      Class.forName ("oracle.jdbc.OracleDriver");
    }
    catch (ClassNotFoundException e)
    {
      System.out.println ("The driver could not be loaded");
      e.printStackTrace ();
    }
    Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection(databaseurl , "user" ,"pass");
    System.out.println( "Attempting to connection to " + databaseurl);
    Statement stmt = conn.createStatement();
    System.out.println( "The connection has been made.");
    System.out.println( "Accessing the jdbcstudents database:n");
    System.out.println( "Firstnamet" + "Lastnamet" + "Emailt" + "Graden");
    ResultSet rset = stmt.executeQuery( "select firstname,
      lastname,
      grade,
      email from jdbcstudents");
    while( rset.next() )
    {
      System.out.println( rset.getString("firstname")
        + rset.getString("lastname")
        + rset.getString("email")
        + rset.getString("grade"));
    }
    rset.close();
    stmt.close();
    conn.close();
  }
}

5.0 CONCLUSION

The novelty of JDBC leverages the pervasiveness of Java and its “write once, run anywhere” concept. However, JDBC is not the new paradigm of database connectivity nor is it a silver-bullet for giving users all the data they want, wherever they are located. The hardships in using JDBC are still apparent in the various driver types outlined: the burden is merely shifted from one side of the network to another. Some solutions require the user to install software, others do not.

A JDBC driver is a class that implements the JDBC Driver interface and understands how to convert program (and typically SQL) requests for a particular database. Clearly, the driver is what makes it all work. There are four different driver types, which are discussed in the design solution. The example application uses a Type 2 driver. Another driver type may make more sense for a particular project. Most database vendors now provide drivers to implement the JDBC API for their particular systems. These are generally provided free of charge.

The first job of the JDBC driver is to connect to the database, which means specific information must be passed to it. The basic information requirements are a Database URL (Universal Resource Locator), a user ID, and a password. Depending on the driver, there may be many other arguments, attributes, or properties available. The next job is to create a table. While the database contains tables, the tables are the actual components that contain data, in the form of rows and columns. The DDL CREATE TABLE statement accomplishes table creation. This statement has many options, some differing from vendor to vendor; the DBMS SQL reference will supply specifics.

Data can be entered and maintained using database-specific tools, or with SQL statements sent programmatically. We focused on using JDBC to send SQL statements to the database. After sending SQL commands to retrieve the data and using JDBC to get results into variables, program code works as with any other variables to display or manipulate that data.

Unsaturated fat is usually liquid at refrigerator temperatures. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat are two kinds of unsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fat is found in large amounts in foods from plants, including olive oil, peanut, avocado, and canola oil (from rapeseed). It is a slightly unsaturated fat. Polyunsaturated fat is highly unsaturated fat that is found in large amounts in foods from plants, including safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oil. Unsaturated fats are not thought to raise blood cholesterol and may actually lower levels.

You may be curious what differentiates this good type of fat (unsaturated) from the bad—it’s because of hydrogen. The bonds that hold together unsaturated fats have double bonds—chemical bonds that share electrons. Saturated fats have more hydrogen atoms and no double bonds. Unsaturated fats can be made more saturated by adding hydrogen atoms. This process is called hydrogenation. You may have seen the phrase “partially hydrogenated oils”. This is usually seen on butter and means that the company has taken an unsaturated fat and made it more like a saturated fat. This process hardens the fat. Recall that unsaturated fat is usually in liquid form.

Linoleic is an essential fatty acid and is needed for proper nerve function. It can be found at your grocery store in canola oil. Alpha-linoleic acid is also necessary; it’s a precursory substance that the body changes to another acid. It ultimately gets converted into a substance found in fish oils. So, the expression “eating fish makes you smarter” has some truth.

Polyunsaturated fats have the potential to generate free radicals, especially when exposed to heat or sunlight. For your future reference, keep vegetable oils stored out of direct sunlight. Mono-unsaturated olive oil is less likely to generate free radicals and is a better choice for salads. Peanut oil is also mono-unsaturated and will withstand much higher heat before breaking down, thus, it is a better choice for cooking.

For further details, I recommend these pages on Wikipedia about fatty acids:

• Stearic Acid - fully saturated
• Oleic Acid - monounsaturated
• Linoleic Acid - polyunsaturated

Many of us have watched an employee from the power company come to read our power meter. He is collecting information in the field and storing it in a portable device. The trend is similar in the consumer market where people demand information anytime and anywhere. The pervasiveness of portable digital assistants (PDAs) combined with their wireless abilities can open new possibilities for microcontroller applications.

An interface all but few PDAs have in common is an infrared port. This enables wireless, two-way communication with any other device using the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) standard. Combining a microcontroller using the IrDA interface and almost any PDA—which already has the interface built-in—can speed the process of data acquisition and even simplify it.

This paper will discuss and examine possible hardware and software issues specific to such a microcontroller/PDA (mC/PDA) interface. The most notable challenge said interface will create is cross-platform compatibility. Microcontrollers (mCs) use assembly language specific to their manufacturer and the family of mC. Further, there is no standard PDA operating system (OS), which could create additional compatibility issues. By establishing hardware and software objectives, a strong focus on this new arena of mC/PDA applications can succeed.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The serial computer interface (SCI) is a logical place to start examining the mC/PDA hardware interface. Starting here will establish a bit pattern for data transfer on, for example, the Motorola MC68HC11. For an external interface, the 68HC11 can support the RS-232 standard. Combined with a MAXIM MAX232, the voltage levels of the SCI signals can be augmented to the corresponding RS-232 signals.

The second logical step in hardware design is interfacing the microcontroller’s RS-232 port with an IrDA device. There are two options for accomplishing this level of integration and design resolution.

The retail version of an RS-232 to IrDA converter is available from Actisys, Inc. The Actisys IR2000L retails for approximately $175 USD. It has eight pins (IRTX, ITRX1, GND, Vcc, IRRX2, SEL1/ID1, SEL2/ID2, and ID3). This is a costly solution, but not prohibitive for smaller scale projects. The IR2000L accepts the standard serial port connectors and easily converts to and from the wireless IrDA standard.

The second option would be to create an IrDA device from the component level. The receiving components available for this are the IS1U60L or GP1U52X. Both of these are IR receivers but the transmission would require another chipset. To achieve a standard method of IrDA Tx/Rx necessitates further electrical design factors. This option has the advantage of cost. These are relatively inexpensive chips compared to the Actisys solution—a very important factor for large-scale production of an mC/PDA interface.

The hardware issues on the PDA side are moot. The IrDA Tx/Rx circuitry is already integrated into the PDA. Thus, half of the hardware design for this interface is complete. The greater issue at hand is the “code,” or communication standard these two devices should use to communicate bi-directionally. The 68HC11 is used as an example in this paper, but the ultimate goal is to create a standard state and/or process most microcontrollers could achieve to communicate with a PDA.

ANALYSIS

For an mC to perform operations (measurements, sensing, etc.) it must be autonomous until an IrDA signal is detected. This requires intuitive use of an interrupt. The PDA sends a “wake-up” signal to the mC, requesting communications. The 68HC11 has such a feature in the SCI receiver.

The wake-up feature would be one of several interrupts in a common code spoken by the PDA and mC. The other interrupts would be related to the TASK (see Figure 1) the mC is being used to execute. If the mC requires multiple interrupts (including the PDA), only one external interrupt is inadequate. In the 68HC11, the IRQ pin is available for an external interrupt. For any practical application, more than one interrupt would be useful. To remedy this, Abel Raymus, has recently published one possible solution in EDN magazine. He offers an inexpensive alternative to buying an mC that supports multiple external interrupts. The states of some interrupts are shown in Figure 1.

The state diagram is similar to that used by Mukaro and Carelse. For their Data Acquisition System the state is dictated by two major events: the RS-232 PC interface is connected and a data sensor is sending data to the microcontroller.

The mC/PDA design has a similar state, but the focus is on Tx/Rx between the microcontroller and PDA. This design assumes data will be sent from the mC to the PDA and instructions/data sent from the PDA to the mC. If instructions—in addition to data—can be sent to the mC, then TASK processes can have a much greater range of utility.

SIMULATION / PROGRAMMING

The standard used to ensure correct data transmission between the PDA and mC should be the same as Huang has outlined:

1. Data must be transferred character by character.
2. A character must consist of one start bit, seven or eight data bits, an optional parity bit, and one or two stop bits.
3. The start bit must be low.
4. The least significant bit must be transferred first, and the most significant bit must be transferred last.
5. The stop bit must be high.
6. A clock with frequency equal to sixteen times the data bit rate must be used to detect the arrival of the start bit and determine the value of each data bit.

These guidelines are intended to eliminate any ambiguity a programmer might encounter when deciding on a standard the PDA should use when transferring a bit stream. This also allows a receiver to synchronize a local clock to each new character.

A bit rate of 9600 baud should allow for ample bandwidth considering the limited storage space addressable by most mCs. For example, the 68HC11 is only expandable to 64 Kbytes. A complete transfer of memory would take very little time at 9600 baud. Even at a slower speed (by IrDA standards), an error correction scheme should be established—correcting for framing, receiver overrun, and parity errors.

Another example of serial-infrared conversion is provided by Wettroth. He notes that the 8051 microcontroller uses a UART that is not compatible with IrDA. Using a high quality IrDA module such as the HP- 1000 combined with the MAX3100 chip, driver code can be written to convert from RS-232 to IrDA and vice versa.

Indeed, if the mC/PDA design calls for instructions to be sent to the mC, then there must be some way of storing them. The EEPROM supports about 100,000 write-erase cycles for doing this. Assuming a program is uploaded to the EEPROM, the RxD and TxD pins must be tied together after reset—making the program run automatically.

The alternative to storing instructions is placing them into RAM. This is a volatile means of storing a program, and should only be done if a reliable, dependable power supply is available to the mC. After reset (in bootstrap mode only) the mC waits for data from the IrDA port. When the program is stored into RAM, the program begins execution. The instruction space is very limited by available RAM. The 68HC11 has 512 bytes of RAM. Other mCs will vary in storage space and the programmer should take this into consideration when coding assembly for the mC.

EXPECTED RESULTS

The final component of mC/PDA communication would be placed on the PDA itself. Once the protocol logistics have been establish, implementing them on the PDA would be the next logical step. There are several factors to consider when coding for a PDA.

The most distinctive feature separating various brands of PDA is the OS. The PDA OS should be selected based on the application best suited for it—not the opposite. The two most prominent OSes available today are Palm OS, by Palm Computing and Pocket PC, by Microsoft. The majority of PDA users have chosen the Palm OS based on simplicity. It is also fast and efficient. Pocket PC devices have a greater range of features and memory but this might be overkill for simple data collection or mC programming in the field. Most PDAs support IrDA speeds up to 115 kbaud, and have FLASH memory expandable to 128MB. This is ample transfer speed and storage space for an mC that can transfer at 9600 baud and store up to 64KB, as in the 68HC11.

FUTURE RESEARCH / APPLICATIONS

Additional research can be done to investigate the specifics of coding for each PDA OS. The viability of such an mC/PDA interface could be evaluated for a series of microcontrollers across manufacturers or isolating a specific family of microcontrollers within one manufacturer.

An mC/PDA interface doesn’t have to be restricted to corporate or private use. According to Walley and Amin, the future of automation in customer environments can offer an array of new applications for improved service. A customer could simply request information pertaining to a certain product or service and have that information downloaded to the PDA. The newest trend is in mobile commerce (m-commerce). Its objective is a wireless method for checkout and/or purchasing in retail stores. Rightly equipped, this is a very practical solution for automation and customer service.

CONCLUSION

The mC/PDA interface is a viable solution that can be applied to many applications. Considering the hardware and software available today, both platforms—Pocket PC and Palm OS—provide software development kits to program either OS. Off-the-shelf products such as the Actisys IR2000L can provide an immediate solution if hardware production time is the greatest factor to consider (and price is a lesser issue). On a larger scale of development, the individual IR components should be realized into a functioning circuit. Regardless of the IrDA implementation, the use of multiple interrupts is strongly recommended.

• This report shows the statistical findings of a linear regression on the most likely variables that affect the number of wins of an NFL team. The initial independent variables are: quarterback salary, average ticket price, rush yards per game, first downs per game, and a dummy variable for location. The pooled (panel) data has a sample of all 31 NFL teams over a three-year period, including 1999, 2000, and 2001. The dependent variable is number of wins.
• The initial model included financial measures such as average ticket price and average quarterback salaries. Statistically, economic factors seem to have little effect on the number of wins. In addition, the initial model proposed in this study did not factor in relevant offensive and defensive data, thus providing very poor regression results with an adjusted R-squared of 0.305.
• The final model dropped the insignificant financial measures and incorporated additional variables for defensive and offensive team statistics. The model has an adjusted R-squared of 0.798, meaning that the model explains roughly 80% of the variation in the data. This percentage is satisfactory because football is a game that needs to be played out on the field. No model can predict exactly how many games a team will win given a limited number of factors. The p-value for the F-statistic is 0.0000, which means that the overall model is significant. The final set of independent variables including first downs per game, quarterback rating, opposition points per game, interceptions per game, and rush yards per game have t-statistic p-values meeting the 10% level of significance. The final model explains the statistically significant variables that contribute to a team’s overall number of wins.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

In professional sports there is a mystique surrounding the variables that influence the performance of a winning team. Sports fans would like to reasonably ascertain (with some statistical backing) that their team is going to win. With so much available data, a solid model to predict the number of wins would be informative. The objective of this project is to answer, with reasonable statistical significance, what variables affect the number of games an NFL team will win in any given season.

3.0 DATA

The time period of data is for the NFL’s 1999 - 2001 football seasons. The sample data is not time-series but instead, the selected data is pooled data (or panel data). There are 93 observations that include 31 teams per year. Data for 2002 was not used because of a newly-added team and because the season is not yet complete. The dependent variable is the number of wins for an NFL football team. The initial independent variables for each NFL team are:

• quarterback salary
• average ticket price
• rush yards per game
• first downs per game
• north, south, and west (dummy variables for geographic location)

The main data sources for these variables are nflarchives.com, teammarketing.com, and usatoday.com. NFL Archives provides team-relevant statistics. USA Today provides the salaries for quarterbacks. Team Marketing is a research firm that evaluates the average ticket prices for all NFL stadiums. The location of the teams was determined by examining a map of the U.S. and separating teams into four (roughly) equal-sized areas. A map of the partitioned geographic areas is in Appendix H.

4.0 REGRESSION ESTIMATIONS

Our initial model was estimated using the least squares method of linear regression. The results for the initial and final models are shown in Table 1 and Table 2. There is one intermediate model. All data was generated with the statistical package, EViews 3.1 Student Version, unless stated otherwise. All regression models are located in Appendix A.

The first model generated has a very low adjusted R-squared value of 0.305. The F-statistic has a highly significant p-value-effectively zero. Each individual p-value for the t-statistic is far above the 10% level of significance, except for rush yards per game and first downs per game with 0.0011 and 0.0018, respectively. The estimated coefficients are all positive except for WEST, SALARYQB, and the constant term. The constant, which represents the base number of team wins, should not start with a negative number.

The final model has a much better adjusted R-squared value of 0.7986. The F-statistic has, again, a zero level of significance. Each individual p-value for the t-statistic has greatly improved. The estimated coefficients have logical signs. Naturally, the fewer opponents points per game, the higher number of wins for the dependent variable team. Thus, OPPPPG has a negative coefficient. The variable, interceptions per game, represents defensive turnovers created by interceptions. The intercept is positive and is a reasonable, minimum number of wins for an NFL team.

4.1 Refining the Model

4.1.1 Functional Form and Omitted Variables

The initial regression yielded disappointing results. To boost the adjusted R-squared value, additional variables were added to form Model B. The dependent variable was plotted against each independent variable to look for non-linear relationships. These plots are located in Appendix B. Because of the low adjusted R-squared value, the functional form was modified and no further tests were run on the original model. The next evaluation of the model led to a more balanced view with offensive and defensive variables. These variables were added to Model A to form Model B: quarterback rating, opposition points per game, total defensive yards per game, interceptions per game, and passing yards per game.

4.1.2 Multicollinearity and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)

Due to the omitted variables in Model A, Model B is the first model to have the VIF calculations. The results indicate that pass yards per game should be dropped due to a high VIF value of 10.9762. The correlation matrix shows that total defense per game has a high rho value (almost 0.8). The t-statistic p-value of total defense per game is also high, indicating that it is a candidate to be dropped. Correlation matrices are located in Appendix C; VIF values are in Appendix D.

4.1.3 Heteroskedasticity and Serial Correlation

The sample data is neither time series nor cross sectional-it is panel data. The data for this research is only for a three-year time period. Thus, serial correlation was not tested on the data. However, the White Test for heteroskedasticity using cross products was used to check for inconsistent variances. The tests indicate that neither Model B nor Model C suffer from heteroskedasticity. The high F-statistic p-values (Model B: 0.636; Model C: 0.608) are a good indication that no corrections for heteroskedasticity are necessary. The White Tests for heteroskedasticity are in Appendix E.

4.1.4 Wald Test for Joint Significance

The t-test and Wald test for joint significance reveals that first downs per game and rush yards per game, in Model B, are jointly significant. Therefore, reject the null hypothesis that these two variables have a zero coefficient and keep the jointly significant variables. The other Wald Tests for Model B did not reveal any level of joint significance that could adversely affect the final model.

4.1.5 Dropped Variables

Based upon the previous statistical tests and testing the t-statistics, the list of independent variables for Model C is selected. The high t-statistic p-value for average ticket price is a good indication to drop the variable; likewise for the location dummy variable (north, south, and west). Quarterback salary has a high t-statistic p-value; however, some investigation revealed that NFL teams have salary caps. Knowing this, the variable was dropped. The high VIF and high t-statistic p-value for pass yards per game was a good indication to drop that variable.

5.0 FINAL MODEL EVALUATION

Model C, the final model, has been tested using the same criteria as Model B, the intermediate model. The constant coefficient indicates that each NFL team will achieve a minimum number of wins, usually 2.8. Every first down per game contributes 0.179 wins to the team, while interceptions per game contribute 0.77 wins to the team. Rush yards per game adds to the number of wins, much like the quarterback’s rating. As the opposition’s points per game increases, the likelihood of an NFL team winning a game decreases, thus the negative coefficient. Contrary to the original assumption, financial measures do not influence the wins of an NFL team. Location does not significantly affect the outcome of wins since a team does not play all 16 games in one geographic area. The final model indicates that a balance of offensive and defensive statistics is necessary to explain the number games that a team will win.

6.0 SUMMARY

The final model dropped the insignificant financial measures and incorporated additional variables for defensive and offensive team statistics. It has an adjusted R-squared of 0.798, meaning that the model explains roughly 80% of the variation in the data. This percentage is satisfactory because football is a game that needs to be played out on the field. No model can predict exactly how many games a team will win given a limited number of factors. The p-value for the F-statistic is 0.0000, which means that the overall model is significant. The final set of independent variables including first downs per game, quarterback rating, opposition points per game, interceptions per game, and rush yards per game have t-statistic p-values meeting the 10% level of significance. The final model developed explains the statistically significant variables that contribute to a team’s overall number of wins.

APPENDIX A: REGRESSION OUTPUT

Table 3: Least Squares Regression for Model A
Table 4: Least Squares Regression for Model B
Table 5: Least Squares Regression for Model C

APPENDIX B: CHECK FOR NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS

Omitted from the online version of this essay.

APPENDIX C: CORRELATION MATRICES

Table 6: Correlation Matrix for Model B
Table 7: Correlation Matrix for Model C

APPENDIX D: VARIANCE INFLATION FACTOR

Table 8: VIF Values for Model B
Table 9: VIF Values for Model C

APPENDIX E: HETEROSKEDASTICITY

Table 10: White Test for Heteroskedasticity for Model B
Table 11: White Test for Heteroskedasticity for Model C

APPENDIX F: WALD TESTS

The following tables have results from the Wald Test for joint significance. In Model B, first downs per game and rush yards per game are jointly significant. They are included in the final model, Model C.

Table 12: Wald Test for Model B
Table 13: Wald Test for Model C

APPENDIX G: HISTOGRAM

Graph 1 is for the dependent variable, number of wins. The normal distribution (or Gaussian distribution) indicates this is an adequate sample of data, both in size and its applicability to the central limit theorem.

APPENDIX H: DUMMY VARIABLE

Figure 1 indicates how the NFL teams were partitioned to form discrete geographic areas. The final model, Model C, does not use a dummy variable for location. Both models A and B, however, incorporated this geographic variable. The team locations were separated into four areas, three of which were used for the linear regression. The west area has seven teams and the mid, south, and north each have eight teams.

I believe this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth. No single space project in this period will be more exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish (Murray 15).

As the nation listened to his speech on radio and television the process had begun. A nation already engrossed in the Cold War committed itself and on July 20, 1969, Kennedy’s realization was met. Neil Armstrong stepped onto the moon and made the giant leap for mankind and later returned safely to Earth. A space program with only three fatalities was soon to meet its second disaster: Apollo 13.

On April 11, 1970, three men were launched into space as part of NASA’s continuing mission to explore our final frontier. This was the Apollo 13 moon mission. When the Apollo 13 lunar mission was compromised due to an explosion, Mission Control and the Apollo crew had to change their focus from a lunar landing to a rescue. The results of the mission show what a talented team can do in a crisis situation. The Apollo 13 objective seemed to most Americans as a “boring” mission, since it was only geological in nature and there were no major milestones. Everything was routine from launch to lunar module extraction, until the service module experienced an explosion. Mission Control was put up to the task of writing the many procedures for the new Apollo 13 mission, which was to bring three astronauts home alive. Most of America was sitting vigilantly at their television sets waiting to see the results of this unfolding crisis, hoping that it would be a smooth recovery.

When NASA received its directive to begin the lunar landing objective the first thing they did was name the program. Abe Silverstein, head of the Office of Space Flight Programs gave the name Apollo to the space program. Apollo is the Greek god who rode the chariot of the sun drawn by four winged horses (Murray 54).

The next question on the agenda for the Apollo program was: How are we going to get a man up there? This problem was given to the engineers at NASA. The actual rocket itself would be called the Saturn V. A truly great feat of engineering would be the design for the Saturn V boosters. The F-1 engines, as they were called, delivered a total punch of 7.5 million pounds of thrust (Murray 147). This was the individual technological achievement that more than any other made Kennedy’s lunar commitment a reality (144). The engineers then had to figure out a way of landing the men on the moon.

The first idea considered is what is known as a “direct ascent” mode, whereby a rocket takes off from earth toward the moon and once it is close enough the rocket turns around and uses its thrusters as a brake (Murray 108). Another mode was considered whereby a big spacecraft would be assembled in space with components launched separately from earth to then go to the moon. This mode was referred to as the earth-orbit rendezvous, or E.O.R. (108). Another type of mode was circulating around NASA and that was the L.O.R. or lunarorbit rendezvous (Murray 114). This involved the notion of using a second spacecraft to descend to the lunar surface. Von Braun, a head engineer, said that lunar-orbit rendezvous, “offers the highest confidence factor of successful accomplishment within this decade” (139). The final decision for L.O.R. was made on June 7, 1962.

With the mode for lunar landing selected, NASA proceeded to build the command module (CM), which was a three man space capsule. The service module (SM) housed the main engine, the reaction control system, fuel cell batteries, oxygen and hydrogen tanks, and the environmental control system. The CM and SM were combined to form the command and service module (CSM). Finally, they designed the lunar module (LM) which was designed to land on the moon (Apollo Program 1). With all the major components complete, NASA was ready to do serious testing.

Before the manned Apollo flights, other testing began on May 28, 1964. On January 27, 1967, during a flight simulation the CM of Apollo I had a fire. The fire spread through the 100% pure oxygen environment and the crew died of asphyxiation, not burns, and they did not suffer long (Murray 197). The accident took the lives of astronauts Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee. NASA did not, despite the accident, switch to a two-gas system for technical reasons (Murray 206). Apollo 2 through Apollo 6 continued as unmanned test flights. Apollo 7 was the first manned flight of the Apollo series, launched on October 11, 1968; its objective was to determine if the vehicle was space worthy for the duration of a lunar mission, which it was. Apollo 8 through 10’s missions served as reconnaissance for landing sites and practice docking with the LM (in both Earth orbit and lunar orbit). Finally, Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy’s goal; Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin landed on the moon in July 1969, eight years after Kennedy’s speech.

The Apollo 13 mission was another scientific research mission. The crew would be conducting geological surveys and collecting moon samples from the Fra Mauro highlands. The Apollo 13 mission patch reads “Ex Luna, Scientia”, which translates to “from the moon, knowledge” (Chaikin 52). The crew named the CSM Odyssey and the LM Aquarius (the practice of naming spacecraft started with Apollo 9).

The crew for Apollo 13 consisted of Jim Lovell (commander), Ken Mattingly (CM pilot), and Fred Haise (LM pilot). Lovell was no rookie to the space program; he had been on Gemini 6, 12, and also on Apollo 8. A three man crew turned out just right because two men were needed for lunar exploration and a third was needed to operate the CM while the other two were on the surface of the moon. At the time the decision was made for a three man crew, the engineers hadn’t thought about such things as lunar modules. They figured they would run duty shifts like the Navy, four hours on, eight off, which meant they needed three astronauts to ensure that an astronaut would remain on duty all the time (Murray 106). Just as the Apollo 13 crew was getting adjusted to each other, Mattingly was pulled off the mission 72 hours before launch because it was suspected that he had German measles. Jack Swigert was the replacement CM pilot.

Launch day for Apollo 13 was April 11, 1970 at 1:13 PM. The launch for Apollo 13 only had one glitch: the center engine of the five F-I engines cut off but did not affect the rest of the mission. Staging of the Saturn V rocket continued through the third stage which breaks through the earth’s gravitational field and aims toward the moon. After the third stage of the Saturn V is complete the CSM separates from it and turns around and docks with the LM. After docking is complete the next step is to fire up the CSM engine and head toward the moon, this was done on April 12, 7:54 PM.

Monday evening on April 13 the crew was to give a live tour of the spacecraft to America but the TV networks decided not to carry it. It had just been nine months since Neil Armstrong’s walk on the moon and the Apollo missions seemed to have lost some of their magic (Chaikin 50). We had won the “space race” with the Soviet Union and by the time of Apollo 12’s flawless landing the public was losing interest (50). Apollo 13’s only audience for the broadcast was the team of flight controllers at Houston.

After the broadcast, Mission Control requested that Odyssey stir the oxygen tanks. This was a daily practice; the super-cold cryogenic liquids would tend to stratify, making it difficult for both astronauts and flight controllers to get an accurate reading (Chaikin 52). The fans were activated and the oxygen was stirred up. Seconds later the men heard a loud, dull bang and an alarm signal rang in their headsets. Red warning lights indicated there was a problem with Odyssey’s electrical system. One of the two main electrical junctions, or buses, wasn’t delivering enough power. Lovell keyed his mike and said, “Houston, we’ve had a problem. We’ve had a Main B Bus Undervolt” (Chaikin 52). An “undervolt” means a substantial reduction of power which puts the equipment running from it in jeopardy (Murray 391). As the two joined ships rocked back and forth against one another Haise heard the sound of metal flexing (Chaikin 52). Haise scanned the instrument panels and saw that one of the SM’s three power producing cells, which combined oxygen and hydrogen to produce current was dead (53).

The mission was already over. Without all three fuel cells working the men were forbidden to go into lunar orbit. More warning lights came on and another fuel cell had died. Meanwhile, Swigert was trying to stabilize the spacecraft using the SM’s maneuvering thrusters, although he was unsuccessful (Chaikin 53). Lovell saw disturbing readings for Odyssey’s oxygen tanks: minutes earlier they were full, now tank 2 was completely empty and tank 1 was down a third of normal and still continued to fall. With so many redundant components built into the spacecraft this particular combination of glitches was unthinkable (53). The individual parts of the spacecraft were supposed to have reliability of .99999, or .999999, or sometimes .9999999 (Murray 101). Had the extra cryo stir not been ordered, the accident would have been postponed to the next day, not prevented (Murray 390). The chance that two independent fuel cells would go bad was in the area of one in 100 million (397). Apollo 13 was dying 200,000 miles away from earth and something had to be done.

Meanwhile back at Houston a full team of flight controllers worked to solve the problem. Under the direction of White Team flight director Gene Kranz, they had to determine if the problem was real or was actually instrumentation error. Kranz had seen what these young flight controllers could do, most of which were in their mid-twenties, were so sharp, so savvy, and so well trained that they could solve almost any problem, sometimes within seconds (Chaikin 53). Fourteen minutes after the explosion Kranz heard the chilling message from Lovell: “We’re venting something into space. It appears to be a gas of some sort” (53). Both the astronauts and Mission Control realized that it was oxygen spilling from Odyssey. Kranz said, “Let’s solve the problem, but let’s not make it any worse by guessin’” (Murray 396). The flight controllers decided to power down the CSM. The LM was then configured to supply the necessary power and other consumables. Swigert powered down Odyssey and Aquarius became their lifeboat. They made a course correction to get on a “free-return” trajectory. In this maneuver they use the moon’s gravitational field to slingshot them back to earth (a fail safe in every Apollo mission). Making a u-turn back to earth would be too risky since Houston didn’t know what had happened to Odyssey’s engine during the explosion (Chaikin 54). Kranz turned over flight control to Glynn Lunney’s Black Team, then to Gerry Griffin’s Gold Team. The White Team had been asked to make more life-and-death decisions than any other flight control team (Murray 423).

As Apollo 13 flew into the darkness of the lunar shadow they would truly be on their own. Radio contact is lost for about 30 minutes and just as every moon voyager before them, they sped around the moon like a toboggan taking a curve until it was, at last, heading toward Earth (Chaikin 86). Now a crucial point in the return home: the PC+2 burn. This is when the crew fires up their rocket two hours after their pericynthion, or closest approach to the moon (Chaikin 56). This burn would trim a full day off of the return trip and conserve their precious supplies of power and water. It would also get them on the correct trajectory toward earth (56). In order to accomplish this, the onboard guidance platform readings had to be precise. Otherwise the crew would be sent on a path from which there could be no recovery. In order to validate the accuracy of the platform, ground control had to devise a new method of verification. Typically the stars could be “shot” optically to derive an angular reference. However, debris made this impossible. Ground control developed a method which utilized the sun as a reference (Chaikin 86). This was unusually difficult to do because of the size of the image but it worked. On April 14, 8:40 PM, Aquarius fired its lunar descent engine to propel the spacecraft toward earth. The crew was successful in manually “flying” the spacecraft during the four minute burn and were on their way home (86).

As Apollo 13’s course was under control another problem arose. The carbon dioxide levels in the spacecraft were rising every time they each took a breath. The LM, which was designed to filter air for only two people, now had the task of three. The LM used round canisters of LiOH (lithium hydroxide) to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and by Wednesday the supply was almost used up (Chaikin 86). Mission Control came to the rescue once again. The canisters in the CSM were square and had to be adapted to fit in the LM’s using some of the items available onboard: a plastic storage bag, a plastic cover from the flight plan book, and gray tape (86). The makeshift filter looked something like a mailbox and it worked. Just minutes after Haise installed it on the LM, the CO2 levels began to fall toward normal levels. This “mailbox” profiles the resourcefulness that Mission Control was bringing to bear on each problem as it arose (86).

Ken Mattingly, who had been working on reentry procedures in the NASA simulators, was ready to read them off to Swigert. The process took almost two hours and on April 17, 7:15 AM they cast off the stricken SM (Chaikin 87). As the cylindrical module drifted away the men saw the damage. Lovell responded, “There’s one whole side of that spacecraft missing!” (87) The heat shield on the CM was of concern because if it was damaged in the explosion it might not withstand the hellish conditions of reentry. Aquarius, the vessel that had served as their lifeboat for the mission, was then cast off into space. As the Command Module entered the earth’s atmosphere it left an ionization trail that blacked out communications for a few minutes and then on April 17, 12:08 PM, Apollo 13 splashed down into the South Pacific (Chaikin 88). Men at Mission Control and all throughout NASA cheered. The triumph of Apollo 13 belonged to these earthbound heroes as much as it did the astronauts (88). By the end of the flight a total of 17 astronauts helped in getting Apollo 13 home (Murray 419). Years later many would call Apollo 13 NASA’s finest hour (Chaikin 88). Prayers were said at the Vatican, at a congregation of 100,000 in India, and at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem (Chaikin 56). The world was truly with the crew of Apollo 13.

The cause for the problem aboard Apollo 13 was determined to be a faulty thermostat. The subcontractor never got word of the change in design specifications so the thermostat had a voltage rating of 28 volts instead of 65. During testing voltage was applied to the thermostat and it had welded shut, temperatures inside the cryogenic oxygen tank increased to 1,000° but no one knew because the temperature gauge didn’t go past 85° (Chaikin 88). The intense heat cracked insulation on some of the fan motor wires. Nothing else happened until April 13 on Apollo 13. The cryo stir created an electrical short and started a fire within the tank; pressure built up and blew off an outer panel, also crippling the fuel cells and Apollo 13.

As for the crew, Jim Lovell and Fred Haise never went in space again and Jack Swigert died a few years after the mission from cancer. Ken Mattingly never got the measles and later went up in Apollo 16 as the command module pilot (Apollo Program 3). The Apollo program came to an end with Apollo 17 on December 19, 1972, eleven years after Kennedy’s speech and at a total cost of $25 billion (Apollo Program 1).

To illustrate communication levels a sociograph can provide insights such as the most frequent and least frequent participants in a team. The resulting data for the movie is presented in tabular and graphical formats. It is important to note that these graphs do not show communication as a function of time.

• The data in Table 1 is the quantitative results of each juror’s communication with the other eleven on the jury. To read the table you find the juror number or actor name of interest, then, to see how many times he communicated with the other jurors, move to the corresponding column. For example, to see how many times Jack Warden talked to Henry Fonda, read from row seven and column eight. Each row also indicates the total number of encouragements (ENCOR), interruptions (INTER), and group (GROUP) communications for each juror.
• Figure 1 displays the communications of each juror based on 100% of his own communications. To read the sociograph, find the actor name or juror number of interest on the vertical axis; scan across to the bar of interest, then find the color that corresponds to the juror on the legend. For example, to see who Henry Fonda talks to the most, go to the bottom bar, read across to the bar that has the greatest number (32) and find the corresponding color on the legend. Red corresponds to Lee J. Cobb.
• Figure 2 displays total encouragements, interruptions, and group communications for each juror.
• Figure 3 displays total individual communications from each juror. This includes communication to every juror, interruptions, encouragements, and communication made to the entire group.

Graphics innovation has become inextricably tied to the development of PC and console games. Demand for gaming graphics has pushed the semiconductor industry, research in academia, convergence, and even art. Computer games are changing the concept of military defense and simulation. What was a niche market for arcade machines has expanded to “convergence” devices that combine utility with home entertainment. Demand for lifelike graphics is expected in all sorts of applications but what started the trend? Over the course of three decades, multi-billion dollar industries would be created, gaming would flourish, and digital actors would replace real people in the movies. Trace the money back to its roots and you’ll likely find a game of table tennis.

SIMPLE BEGINNINGS

The tremors began with a dubious game title that emulated table tennis: Pong. Households across America would not know the PC for another decade and could not imagine the revolution that was about to ensue. Pong’s beauty was in its interactivity. People could now have total control over the graphics seen on-screen. It attained popularity in the early- to mid-seventies and was a game unlike any other at the time. Game programmer Steve Ogden said, “[Pong] was not a ping-pong game; it was a series of icons that stood in for a ping-pong game. The conversion took place in the player’s head.”¹

I was raised on an 8-bit computer system–the TI 99/4A. I can still remember the awe of first seeing an interactive game played on TV. Pong wasn’t much to look at but was the predecessor to a slew of 8-bit computer systems. These systems had limited memory and processor speed but were advanced for early-eighties computer systems. They had graphics no one had seen before but like Pong would yield their gaming crown in a matter of time thanks to better game titles. Again, as Ogden pointed, “Only content can compel us to play a game that is past its prime, for if a game is only the sum of its technological advances, it has nothing to offer when its technology is trumped by the inevitable newcomer.”¹

Two 8-bit systems were part of this revolution and each had its place in gaming history: the Atari 800 and the TI 99/4A. My friends can speak for the Atari games. However, my childhood memories are of the Texas Instruments. These computers proved to be a viable platform for games. The TI 99/4A had 48K RAM, 16K ROM, and a maximum resolution of 256×192. The Atari 800 had 48K RAM, 10K ROM, and a maximum resolution of 320×192. Given this limited technology, game writers were still able to develop 2D and even 3D games.

Using sprites, primitive components of computer graphics, game writers could draw graphics on the screen (then TV monitors) to the foreground and background using sprite priority. This gave the illusion of 3D effects. As Collins stated, “The simplest method used to convey the impression of depth involved the use of spritebackground or sprite-sprite priority to achieve a degree of hidden surface removal.”² Despite their similar technical capabilities, the product differentiation was achieved through game titles. I can remember my favorite games from the TI–games that provided hours of enjoyment–but the name Atari is synonymous with gaming, not Texas Instruments. I’m sure no one imagined this to be a multi-billion dollar industry. Thus, gaming did not propel itself directly on American society. Instead, gaming would take multiple paths into American homes. The PC, dedicated gaming consoles, and hybrid devices would introduce the lust for gaming on the public.

LEVERAGE FROM THE PC

The 8-bit computers quickly evolved into the PC. As Montfort identified in the late nineties, “[T]he games played on these early systems made graphics and sound capabilities more common and therefore affordable, fastforwarding the development of other uses of graphics, in areas like desktop publishing.”³ Part of the gaming graphics feedback loop is acceptance into the mainstream. There are many crossover technologies from gaming that shaped the future of the PC. Gaming itself has made inroads into various technologies, including graphics, but that progress has been leveraged by using the PC.

Electronic Arts founder Trip Hawkins notes that, “The video game is driving the demand for graphic computing. You wouldn’t even have graphics cards in PCs if it weren’t for games.”³ We take for granted the amazing 2D and 3D capabilities of modern PCs. Perhaps we’ll take for granted the next step in computer technology: haptics. Games started using this in arcades to shake the control stick and provide tactile feedback. This technology was first introduced for the PC by a company called Immersion. Now the PC is using this technology to complement the visual feedback from the computer screen. Microsoft is using this in mainstream office applications to let users feel when they move over a web link, or perform other routine functions. PC software now supports haptics and it is standard technology in gaming consoles.

Few other technologies have gained more leverage from the PC as 3D technology. Graphics chip designer NVIDIA develops 3D chips for use in PCs. These chips are also used for Microsoft’s Xbox system and even for the F-22 fighter aircraft.⁴ Some cards have upwards of 128MB of video memory and produce 32-bit true color in resolutions exceeding 1280×1024. Microsoft research is also developing a 3D desktop environment to replace our flat, 2D PC desktop. Their Unit Interface group calls this project “Task Gallery.” George Robertson, head of that group, said, “The computer science researchers who work on 3D navigation techniques pay close attention to what goes on in the gaming community.”³ The gamers who once played 3D games might soon ask for the same capabilities from the PC.

Politicians and other pundits who panned the intensity of some games are overlooking the technologies they are bringing to the PC. Online gaming has become a huge segment of gaming. Just go to Yahoo! and check the list of available online games (for free!). These are fun trifles but the real influence comes from games like Electronic Arts’ The Sims Online and Sony’s EverQuest. The role playing in online gaming lends people to identify not with the other person but with their avatar. It’s an abstraction of real-time video conferencing. Microsoft is also investigating this phenomenon where people identify with the representation of the user–a fake image–but not an actual picture of the user.

For an example of the blinding pace of graphics in the PC industry, you need only look at the number of graphics cards available. There are no less than 20 available at any given time. They all offer various levels of technology; they all capitalize on the most recent advances in gaming, such as shadowing, bump-mapping, and increased frame rates. The turnover rate for graphics cards is very high due to the number of games available. Games often demand the most advanced video technology. For gaming consoles, the turnover rate is not as high but their contribution to graphics is no less astounding.

CONSOLES AND CONVERGENCE

The consulting firm IDG estimates that 72 million dedicated gaming consoles will be owned in North America by 2004. To that end Sony is investing $400 million just to develop the chip, not the system, of the PlayStation 3 console.³ Most new consoles are supporting DVD technology and companies are devoting increasing attention to networking capabilities. The feature list of consoles is reading more like a slimmed down PC rather than a dedicated gaming machine. As Richard Rouse, PlayStation 2 game designer said, “Each time a new generation of console gaming systems is launched, the death of the PC gaming market is predicted. In the end, though, the PC market survives and evolves, maintaining its position as a separate and unique form of interactive gaming.”⁵ The common link between PCs and consoles still remains the graphics. The difference remains in the presentation.

Rouse noted, “PC and console games also use radically different visual output devices.”⁵ The difference between a TV and a computer monitor are like night and day–when sitting 12 inches from the screen. Trying to read the fine print on TV commercials is nearly impossible. Thus, PC gaming has an edge when highly detailed characters are used. Game developers are aware of these limitations but graphics are still a key concern. Rouse continued, “A console system remains commercially viable for a span of at least four years, meaning that a developer can learn how to develop for a system and then reuse and refine a game engine for the next few years. A PC developer, on the other hand, is constantly faced with shifting technology targets, where each year or even half a year new hardware becomes available which allows for more impressive graphics. The prevailing wisdom is that these snazzier graphics must be delivered if the PC game is going to compete in the marketplace.”⁵ He concludes by saying that consoles carry much higher development costs, thus, constricting small game developers with limited finances. Better games will almost always debut on the PC.

With so much going for the PC why pour so much money into consoles? That’s the billion dollar question. Sony is betting that home entertainment will converge to the gaming console. Convergence of “systems-on-chip” is a greater issue for consoles. As England stated, “Integrating CPU and graphics is more a business issue than a technical one; game consoles represent one area where tight integration is mandatory.” He later states that game consoles are the “first real graphic appliances.”⁶ Many consumer electronics are adding visual interfaces. For some devices such as DVD players, digital satellite receivers, and digital video recorders, a graphical interface is requisite. Gaming consoles could offer the level of convergence necessary for modern home entertainment.

The process of convergence has already begun with various gaming technologies. As Froggatt stated, “The level of semiconductor integration was, for the time [1994], simply staggering. It had taken ten years for the appearance of a semiconductor process capable of integrating 1 million transistors onto a single device and capable of turning the 20,000 discrete components of System G into those two ICs. PlayStation was a standardbearer for the principles of system-on-chip integration, and set the trend for the extensive semiconductor integration that is to be seen in the current generation of consoles.”⁷ The gaming industry is focused on convergence and integration. Smaller components means the same device can have more space for added functionality. The Xbox is the current king of game consoles. It has more functionality installed than other consoles such as the Nintendo GameCube and Sony PlayStation 2; networking for online gaming and a hard drive are already installed. Electronic convergence might enter the living room sooner than we realize.

Jon Peddie, a consultant in the graphics industry, predicts that digital entertainment will evolve into three forms: smart digital TVs, game consoles, and virtual appliances (a derivative of the entertainment PC). He noted, “Although CISC and RISC processors have advanced according to Moore’s law, doubling speed every 18 months, graphics controller performance, as measured in MHz, has improved even more quickly.”⁸ These graphical leaps are more apparent in the movie industry. Distinguishing real from computer generated is becoming harder with the passage of time. The movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is an example of a computer game made into a movie with very convincing, human-like renderings of people.

Cell phones, PDAs, MP3 players, digital cameras, and other small personal devices are the next big question mark in convergence. People want the functionality of all devices integrated into a compact, easy-to-use device. Several combinations have been attempted but it seems the cell phone has the most potential. The ability to connect to the internet via cell phones is not new but the color screens on those phones are only now becoming popular and widely available.

According to handheld device sales, 90 percent are simple PDAs. The trend is simplicity. The most advanced PDAs incorporate wireless connectivity, stylus data entry, color screens, and now miniature keyboards (e.g., the Palm Tungsten W).⁹ Microsoft Pocket PC devices had installed keyboards but users rejected them for being too clunky. New PDA designs seem inspired by the old Nintendo GameBoy. The most obvious similarity is a four-direction navigation key with a few thumb buttons. Even the design of these devices is converging.

Go to any online consolidator like ZD Net or CNET and you’ll find a game download section clearly marked for PDAs. Cybiko, maker of popular handheld devices for kids, has teamed with Nortel Networks and Motorola to offer game downloads to Motorola phones. Cybiko’s founder, David Yang, notes that video games are a major factor for color graphics and improved displays on cell phones.³ Until manufacturers determine what buyers want, we’ll see plenty of these hybrid convergence devices. The effect of gaming convergence is not limited to popular culture. The military has also benefited from PC games and consoles.

EXTREME RESEARCH

Many people enlist in the military just after high school. They’re maybe 17 or 18 years old. Few expect to play games or simulations based on the very games they played as adolescents, but that’s exactly what is happening. The government spends roughly $4 billion every year on simulation and equipment.

Michael Macedonia, an employee of the U.S. Army Simulation and Instrumentation Command said, “[T]he Microsoft Xbox and Sony PlayStation 2 game consoles are being adapted for distributed networked military gaming.”¹⁰ It’s no surprise that these machines are being used for practical purposes other than gaming. Today’s military isn’t like the military of yesteryears. Cost effective solutions come in whatever form they take. In this case, the military uses these devices because all the components, audio, video, and input/output are completely integrated.

A recent Xbox TV commercial shows teenagers playing an online, first-person shooter; they’re losing the battle. The scene cuts to some actual U.S. Marines; they’re playing the same Xbox game in the desert; the teenagers lose the game. The analogy is no coincidence. Playing on a gaming console is nothing new for Marines or teenagers.

The concept of war games in the military is not a recent development. The Army tried to enhance gunners’ hand-eye coordination with the Atari game Battlezone. It wasn’t until the U.S. Marine Corps modified id Software’s popular title Doom when I could relate on a personal level. I played the original game (and its sequel) many hours in my high school days. The modified version was known as Marine Doom–an urban combat simulation.¹⁰

According to Platoni, “Off-the-shelf video games can be modified for military use for under $200.”¹¹ That’s very reasonable if you consider the retail price of most games to be $50. Some game developers are releasing the underlying code of their games to the public. This permitted many new opportunities in research areas including “augmented reality” systems, which will be discussed later.

Gaming is a lucrative business, as Platoni said, “some of the bigger defense contractors are trying to make the pendulum swing the other way.”¹¹ The example given by Platoni is Lockheed Martin, which spun off Real 3D. The company even came to UCF’s Engineering Expo Week during 1999 to demonstrate some of its technology. Their demonstration consisted of a flat panel LCD display running at an amazing resolution of 2048×1024 in 32-bit color, running at over 24 frames per second. It was a repeating 3D simulation of a roller coaster. Through these developments Lockheed Martin has sold back this technology to the Department of Defense; they call this process “defense conversion-reinsertion.”¹¹

The augmented reality I mentioned earlier is part of an academic experiment. Gaming has finally extended its reach into academia. Thanks to wholesome efforts by game makers the source code to certain games is available to the public. Open source also allows for development into new computer operating systems such as Linux. One such example is the ARQuake system based upon the id Software Quake graphics engine. Quake was a popular sequel and massive leap from previous generations of 3D first-person shooter games. To quote Piekarski and Thomas, “Augmented reality (AR) is the process of overlaying and aligning computer-generated images over a user’s view of the physical world.”¹² This was accomplished with a laptop computer, head mounted display, a modified pistol to act as the gun, and a GPS to determine the player’s location. Augmented reality brings gaming graphics into our world. Very often it’s the exact opposite; game developers incorporate aspects of our world into the fake realms of games like The Sims Online–a micro simulation of society itself.

The Quake doppelganger, Unreal Tournament (another first-person shooter), has also been converted into a practical graphics application. The result is CaveUT. As Jacobson and Hwang described, “[C]omputergenerated imagery could respond to input from a performer or the audience itself. At this point it is more like an interactive game–a boon for entertainment and educational applications, as well as certain areas of research.”¹³ The premise of its development is to put the user within a virtual world. Real-time images of that world are then projected on all sides onto white projection screens. The authors of CaveUT relate the technology to planetariums and IMAX theaters.

ART FROM THE MACHINE

The discussion thus far has focused on gaming and graphics as a technology, a form of science or engineering. What about gaming as a form of art? Gaming has influenced the creation of numerous movies and TV shows. It seems just as likely that this technology will influence our concept of artistry. Henry Jenkins wrote in Technology Review, “Computer games are art–a popular art, an emerging art, a largely unrecognized art, but art nevertheless.”¹⁴ The skeptics might say that game graphics aren’t worthy of an art museum. To that end, Jenkins uses the example of Web artists being invited to New York’s Whitney Museum. The same hesitance of inviting them to the museum is likely to translate to game graphics designers. Jenkins said, “Games also depend upon an art of expressive movement, with characters defined through their distinctive ways of propelling themselves through space, and successful products structured around a succession of spectacular stunts and predicaments.”¹⁴

Computer game designer Richard Rouse also shared a similar viewpoint, “As game developers, we need to realize that as of now we’re still a fringe art form with little mainstream appeal, and it’s really too early to tell whether or not computer games will ever evolve to become the mass media phenomena movies are.”¹⁵ Ultimately, this transition will probably be based upon the merit of the game design, not the medium. Paintings, movies, theater, and sculptures are all accepted. Gaming will eventually make the transition from mere graphics to artistry. Game designer Steve Odgen said, “[E]xactly how good do game graphics need to be? We are well past the midpoint on the continuum between icons and thoroughly convincing visual representation. So how good is good enough?”¹

CONCLUSION

Predicting the future of computer graphics is easy: it will become more advanced, more life-like, and more pervasive. The hard part is to know how we’ll get there. Gaming seems to be the common link between disparate technologies; the link between art and science, and the key to new devices. Consoles will be a hot commodity. Knowing how much functionality they will have beyond gaming is still a mystery.

The medium of gaming as a form of art is still too abstract in the public eye. The internet helped to launch a career for many computer graphic designers. The moving picture helped launch an entire industry. Technology initiates trends but it is the art form that perpetuates them. The gaming technologies discussed in this paper are simply an enabler; people don’t demand better graphics of their own volition, they want better games. It’s a causal relationship whereby games are the art form that will push graphics technology into the future.